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Researchers at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) have demonstrated their ability to measure relatively low levels of stress or strain in regions of a semiconductor device as small as 10 nanometers across. Their recent results* not only will impact the design of future generations of integrated circuits but also lay to rest a long-standing disagreement in results between two different methods for measuring stress in semiconductors.
Mechanical stress and strain in semiconductors and other devices is caused by atoms in the crystal lattice being compressed or stretched out of their preferred positions, a complex—and not always harmful—phenomenon. Stress in the underlying structure of light-emitting diodes and lasers can shift output colors and lower the device’s lifetime. Stress in microelectromechanical systems can lead to fracture and buckling that also truncates their lifespan. On the other hand, stress is deliberately built into state-of-the-art microcircuits because properly applied it can increase the speed of transistors without making any other changes to the design. “Stress engineering has allowed the semiconductor industry to increase the performance of devices well beyond what was expected with the current materials set,” said NIST research physicist Robert Cook, “thus avoiding the significant engineering problems and expense associated with changing materials.”
Both the good and the bad stresses need to be measured, however, if they’re to be controlled by device designers. As the component size of microcircuits has become smaller and smaller, this has become more difficult—particularly since two different and widely used methods of stress measurement have been returning disparate results. One, electron back scattered diffraction (EBSD), deduces underlying stress by observing the patterns of electrons scattered back from the crystal planes. The other, confocal Raman microscopy (CRM), measures minute shifts in the frequency of photons that interact with the atomic bonds in the crystal—shifts that change depending on the amount of stress on the bond. The NIST team used customized, highly sensitive versions of both instruments in a series of comparison measurements to resolve the discrepancies.
The key issue, they found, was depth of penetration of the two techniques. Electron beams sample only the top 20 or 30 nanometers of the material, Cook explained, while the laser-generated photons used in CRM might penetrate as deep as a micrometer or more. The NIST researchers found that by varying the wavelength of the Raman photons and positioning the focus of the microscope they could select the depth of the features measured by the Raman technique—and when the CRM was tuned for the topmost layers of the crystal, the results were in close agreement with EBSD measurements.
The NIST instruments also demonstrate the potential for using the two techniques in combination to make reliable, nanoscale measurements of stress in silicon, which enables device developers to optimize materials and processes. EBSD, although confined to near-surface stress, can make measurements with resolutions as small as 10 nanometers. CRM resolution is about 10 times coarser, but it can return depth profiles of stress.
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* M.D. Vaudin, Y.B. Gerbig, S.J. Stranick and R.F. Cook. Comparison of nanoscale measurements of strain and stress using electron back scattered diffraction and confocal Raman microscopy. Applied Physics Letters 93, 193116. (2008)

Elmarco relied on Autodesk Inventor software to develop its Nanospider line of machines, which make the production of nanofiber textiles possible on an industrial scale. Nanofiber textiles are highly breathable but have pore sizes that are small enough to prevent micro particles, bacteria or even viruses from passing through, making it ideal for air filtration systems in medical settings or in chip fabrication plants.
The Inventor of the Month program recognizes the most innovative design and engineering advancements made by the extensive community using Autodesk Inventor software--the foundation of the Autodesk solution for Digital Prototyping. A digital prototype allows users to design, visualize and simulate a product before it is built, reducing the reliance on constructing multiple physical prototypes.
"Inventor of the Month Elmarco is the first--and only--company in the world to offer customers machines for the industrial production of nanofibers," said Robert "Buzz" Kross, senior vice president of Autodesk Manufacturing Solutions. "Inventor has helped Elmarco unleash its innovation in the nanofiber industry."
Many times smaller than a human hair, nanofibers have a diameter of 200 to 500 billionths of a meter. The Nanospider machine produces these nanofibers through a patented electrospinning process, in which a rotating drum is partially submerged in a polymer solution and placed in a high-intensity electrostatic field. The resulting nanofibers are highly desirable for filtration and acoustic applications.
Simplifying with Digital Prototyping
Autodesk Inventor played a key role in helping Elmarco simplify the concept-to-manufacturing process of the Nanospider machines that mass-produce these nanofibers. The 12-member Elmarco design team uses Inventor to create 3D models of the spinning units and the overall machine body that it can easily share with other members of the organization, or reuse for later designs.
"Autodesk Inventor is easy to learn and very user friendly," said Jan Cmelik, chief designer at Elmarco. "By leveraging its capabilities, we're able to reuse existing designs for approximately 80 percent of the parts on our industrial production line."
For the remaining 20 percent of the parts that must be custom developed--such as chemical distribution vehicles--Elmarco is able to take advantage of the powerful piping and tubing functionality in Inventor software, which helps pipe runs comply with design standards. Streamlining the process further, models of purchased components can be easily imported into Inventor to complete the final assembly. Because the Autodesk solution for Digital Prototyping employs a single digital model through all stages of production, it allows Elmarco to use Inventor software's visualization tools to give demonstrations of the machine to customers, decreasing review times and improving Elmarco customers' understanding of the design.
About the Autodesk Inventor of the Month Program
Each month, Autodesk selects an Inventor of the Month from the more than 700,000 users of Autodesk Inventor software, the foundation for Digital Prototyping. Winners are chosen for engineering excellence and groundbreaking innovation. For more information about Autodesk Inventor of the Month, contact us at Email Contact.
About Elmarco Ltd.
Elmarco Ltd. is a leading producer of high-tech solutions for the nanofiber industry. Founded in 2000, Elmarco is headquartered in the Czech Republic and has annual revenues of US$23.3 million. For more information about Elmarco, visit elmarco.com.
About Autodesk
Autodesk, Inc., is the world leader in 2D and 3D design software for the manufacturing, construction, and media and entertainment markets. Since its introduction of AutoCAD software in 1982, Autodesk has developed the broadest portfolio of state-of-the-art Digital Prototyping solutions to help customers experience their ideas before they are built. Fortune 1000 companies rely on Autodesk for the tools to visualize, simulate and analyze real-world performance early in the design process to save time and money, enhance quality and foster innovation. For additional information about Autodesk, visit www.autodesk.com.
Autodesk, AutoCAD, Autodesk Inventor and Inventor are registered trademarks or trademarks of Autodesk, Inc., and/or its subsidiaries and/or affiliates in the USA and/or other countries. All other brand names, product names or trademarks belong to their respective holders. Autodesk reserves the right to alter product offerings and specifications at any time without notice, and is not responsible for typographical or graphical errors that may appear in this document.

The George Washington University has announced the establishment of the GW Institute for Nanotechnology. This institute will draw on the expertise of the University's faculty members in mechanical, aerospace, electrical, computer, civil, and environmental engineering; physics, chemistry; and biochemistry. The institute is supported through special endowment funding designated for academic programs with the potential for a high level of intellectual distinction. Nanotechnology, a field at the intersection of science and engineering, involves manipulating matter at the nanoscale ( down to 1/100,000 the width of a human hair ) to create new and unique materials and products.
As part of the institute's initial efforts, 16 faculty members from GW's School of Engineering and Applied Science and Columbian College of Arts and Sciences will jointly undertake research projects related to nanostructured materials and their properties, applications and devices incorporating nanostructures, computational modeling and analysis, and nanomanufacturing and metrology. Projects already underway include developing a system for nanopatterning and scanning tunneling microscopy, studying growth of carbon nanotubes, creating computational mechanical modeling of nanomaterials, researching nanomagnetics, and constructing filtration with nanostructure materials.
"Nanotechnology is a vital area of national importance with applications across a wide spectrum from medicine to electronics to improving water quality worldwide," said David Dolling, dean of GW's School of Engineering and Applied Science and a professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering. "National laboratories, federal agencies, and private sector corporations all recognize the as-yet untapped potential for discoveries in this emerging field, and we believe that our engineers and scientists will be among those who unlock some of its exciting secrets. The GW Institute for Nanotechnology facilitates their task by creating an infrastructure that fosters multi-disciplinary efforts and provides research support."
Peg Barratt, dean of GW's Columbian College of Arts and Sciences and professor of psychology, added, "Nanotechnology calls for an extremely diverse approach, and we have a breadth and depth of experts who can gather in a common interest to explore its possibilities. The institute will build our knowledge about matter on an atomic and molecular scale, and our professors will share that science-based analysis with students and with the world."
Explaining the importance of work in nanotechnology to the University's engineering and science education programs, Ryan Vallance, GW professor of mechanical engineering and lead professor in the establishment of the institute, said, "Nanoscale phenomena are frequently incompatible with our classical intuition and experiences. Traditional engineering theories, like continuum mechanics, which engineers have used for over a century to design new devices, break down in nanotechnology. We have to now teach students additional physical, chemical, biological, and statistical principles that govern nanotechnology. The institute will help us incorporate nanotechnology into our educational programs, both at the undergraduate and graduate levels."
Located in the heart of the nation's capital, The George Washington University was created by an Act of Congress in 1821. Today, GW is the largest institution of higher education in Washington, D.C. The university offers comprehensive programs of undergraduate and graduate liberal arts study as well as degree programs in medicine, public health, law, engineering, education, business, and international affairs. Each year, GW enrolls a diverse population of undergraduate, graduate, and professional students from all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and more than 130 countries.
Ryan Vallance, GW Institute for Nanotechnology The George Washington University vallance@gwu.edu; 202-994-9830
For more news about The George Washington University, visit the GW News Center at gwnewscenter.org.

Oxford, 17th November 2008 - Midatech Group, a world leader in nanotechnology, today announces the formation of a Basel-based Swiss drug development subsidiary, PharMida AG. Formation of this subsidiary follows an investment by a group of Switzerland-based private investors into Midatech Ltd. The mandate of PharMida is to develop a strong portfolio of clinically validated gold nanoparticle-drug combinations. Furthermore, PharMida will have the responsibility to project manage in-house drug development, commercial partnerships, and out-licensing opportunities in order to leverage the rich collection of the already existing and most promising Midatech Ltd products or product lines in Life Sciences. PharMida will be headed by Professor Fritz R. Buhler as Chairman, and Dr Jan Mous as CEO.
Professor Fritz Buhler, Chairman of PharMida, is Professor of Pharmaceutical Medicine and Pathophysiology as well as of Internal Medicine and Cardiology at the Faculty of Medicine, Universities of Basel. He has a wealth of experience in pharmaceutical development having held a number of senior positions in academia and industry, including Head of Worldwide Clinical R&D at F. Hoffman-La Roche, Director of the European Centre of Pharmaceutical Medicine and co-Founder of International Biomedicine Management Partners, Basel, and Health Innoventures, New York.
Dr Jan Mous, PharMida’s new CEO, has a strong background in research and development, and many years’ experience at senior level in a number of biotech companies. Most recently Dr Mous was President and CEO of IntegraGen, and prior to that he held the position of CSO and was member of the Executive Board of LION bioscience. From 1985 to 2000, Dr Mous enjoyed a successful career at F. Hoffmann-La Roche in Basel.
Professor Thomas Rademacher, Founder and Chairman of Midatech Group, commented: "This is an extremely important step in the development of Midatech and its nanoparticle technology. It is a great privilege to be partnering with such a high calibre team, who between them bring an unrivalled level of expertise and experience in the pharmaceutical sector. I am looking forward to working with Professor Buhler and Dr Mous to develop Midatech’s innovative nanoparticle technology to its full potential."
"I am delighted to be joining PharMida at its inception, and look forward with great anticipation to being a part of the journey that will see this subsidiary develop the potential of its exciting technology," commented Jan Mous, CEO.
"The nanoparticle technology to be developed by PharMida is very promising and I have no doubt will prove to be of great importance to the development better therapeutic applications for patients in need," added Professor Fritz R. Buhler, Chairman.
- ENDS -
About Midatech Group
Midatech Group Ltd, UK, is a world leader in the design, synthesis and manufacture of biocompatible nanoparticles. These nanoparticles can be used to create a wide variety of products with novel characteristics, functions and applications for a number of industry segments including life sciences, electronics and fine chemicals.
Founded in 2000, Midatech Ltd is a private company headquartered in Abingdon, Oxford, UK. In 2005 it registered its manufacturing facility – Midatech Biogune S.L. – in Bilbao, Spain, which became fully operational for cGMP standard design and manufacturing of API nanoparticles In March 2007. In 2008 Midatech Ltd further expanded with the opening of PharMida AG in Basel, Switzerland, which is responsible for developing Midatech's technology in the life sciences arena.
The Technology in life sciences – a paradigm shift in drug development and drug delivery
Midatech’s biocompatible nanoparticles possess a number of unique properties that make them ideal for diagnostic and therapeutic applications.
The nanoparticles are water soluble and can be designed to either diffuse freely in vivo, or to target specific cells. With a diameter of less than 5nm, unbound nanoparticles are freely excreted from the kidneys, reducing the likelihood of non-specific in vivo accumulation. Their size enables drug delivery via different routes of administration, such as parental, buccal, sublingual or intranasal. Their stability to enzymatic digestion may also permit oral therapy. Nanoparticles can be designed to be invisible to the host immune system with multiple ligands attached to a single nanoparticle allowing multivalent drug or multi-drug delivery on a single particle. In addition, as the nanoparticles self-assemble in a single step chemical process manufacturing is simple, safe, scaleable and low cost.
Midatech Ltd. has exclusive world-wide IP for the technology covering design, manufacture and application/use of nanoparticles in both diagnostic and therapeutic pharmaceutical areas as well as in other industries. It also has exclusive world-wide rights for technology relating to the synthesis and applications of self-assembling nanoparticles.

Researchers at Cornell University recently made a major breakthrough when they invented a method to test and demonstrate a long-held hypothesis that some very, very small metal particles work much better than others in various chemical processes such as converting chemical energy to electricity in fuel cells or reducing automobile pollution.
The breakthrough, reported in this week's edition of the journal Nature Materials, also came with a surprise. By devising a way to watch individual molecules react with a single nanoscale particle of gold in real time, researchers confirmed that some gold particles are better at increasing the rate of a chemical reaction than others, but they also found that a good catalyst sometimes spontaneously turns bad.
Understanding why these particles change and how to stabilize the "good" particles may lead to solutions for a wide range of problems such as the current global energy challenge.
-NSF-
Media Contacts Bobbie Mixon, NSF (703) 292-8070 bmixon@nsf.gov
Program Contacts Rama Bansil, NSF (703) 292-8562 rbansil@nsf.gov Z. Charles Ying, NSF (703) 292-8428 cying@nsf.gov Thomas P. Rieker, NSF (703) 292-4914 trieker@nsf.gov
Principal Investigators Peng Chen, Cornell University (607) 254-8533 pc252@cornell.edu
The National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent federal agency that supports fundamental research and education across all fields of science and engineering, with an annual budget of $6.06 billion. NSF funds reach all 50 states through grants to over 1,900 universities and institutions. Each year, NSF receives about 45,000 competitive requests for funding, and makes over 11,500 new funding awards. NSF also awards over $400 million in professional and service contracts yearly.

The Akiyama-probe has been developed in cooperation with the Institute of Microtechnology (IMT) at the University of Neuchâtel for the NANOSENSORS™ brand that is specialized on cutting edge scanning probes for Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) applications. The product is called the Akiyama-probe or A-probe to honour its inventor Dr. Terunobu Akiyama. It is a novel self-sensing and – actuating probe based on a quartz tuning fork combined with a micromachined cantilever for dynamic mode AFM.
It features a symmetrical arrangement of a U-shaped silicon cantilever attached to the two prongs of a quartz tuning fork. The tuning fork serves as an oscillatory force sensor that governs the tip vibration frequency as well as the amplitude and ensures a high mechanical Q-factor. The force constant of the probe is determined by the cantilever and can be adjusted independently from the resonance frequency.
The Akiyama-probe requires neither optical detection, nor an external shaker. A-Probe occupies only a small volume above the sample. These features make it very attractive for creating a new generation of scanning probe microscopy (SPM) instruments.
Up to now the probe was only available to and via AFM manufacturers who sell instruments with A-probe capability. Starting November 2008 the Akiyama-probe will also be available to end-customers via our regular distribution channels. For this occasion NANOSENSORS™ has dedicated a complete website akiyamaprobe.com which offers ample information on this very special product.
About NANOSENSORS™:
NANOSENSORS™ is specializing in the development and production of innovative high quality probes for scanning probe microscopy (SPM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The products are especially designed for scientists at universities, research institutions and industrial R&D centres in the fields of nanotechnology, microtechnology, materials research, semiconductors, biology, biotechnology, chemistry and medicine. NANOSENSORS™ is a trademark of NanoWorld AG.

The arrangement combines Nanogen’s strength in real-time PCR IVD product development with Menarini’s significant market presence in the major EU countries and their rapidly expanding reach into the developing Eastern European markets. Under the terms of the agreement the kits will be manufactured by Nanogen and branded as Menarini products. The first products are expected to be introduced to the market in 2009 and will target infectious disease diagnostics.
“Molecular diagnostics is a high growth segment of the global IVD market and real-time PCR has become a gold standard diagnostic technology,” said Howard Birndorf, CEO of Nanogen. “We are pleased to have a partner like Menarini that can help bring our innovative technology to the $1 billion European market. We believe our strong technology and product capabilities together with Menarini’s local sales strength will open a new market and revenue stream for Nanogen and will make a highly competitive offering in Europe.”
About Nanogen, Inc. Nanogen provides innovative, high quality diagnostic products to clinicians, physicians and researchers worldwide, making it easier to predict, diagnose and, ultimately, help treat disease in a timely fashion. The company's products include molecular diagnostic kits and reagents and kits for rapid, point-of-care diagnostic tests. Nanogen has pioneered research in areas involving nanotechnology, biomarkers, and molecular biology to bring better results to diagnostics and healthcare. For additional information please visit Nanogen’s website at nanogen.com.
About Menarini Menarini is a leading pharmaceutical company formed over a century ago (1886) with a consolidated turnover above €2.5 billion. Today, the Menarini Group has many licensing partners for the European market and an excellent reputation as an effective and efficient partner, both in the development of new products and new scientific information. Additional information is available on the company's website: menarini.com.
Nanogen Forward-Looking Statement This press release contains forward-looking statements that are subject to risks and uncertainties that could cause actual results to differ materially from those set forth in the forward-looking statements, including whether patents owned or licensed by Nanogen will be developed into products, whether the patents owned by Nanogen offer any protection against competitors with competing technologies, whether products under development can be successfully developed and commercialized, whether results reported by our customers or partners can be identically replicated, and other risks and uncertainties discussed under the caption "Factors That May Affect Results" and elsewhere in Nanogen’s Form 10-K or Form 10-Q most recently filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission. These forward-looking statements speak only as of the date hereof. Nanogen disclaims any intent or obligation to update these forward-looking statements.

A revolutionary new gold nanoparticle manufacturing method has been developed that results in gold nanowires that are upwards of 2 microns in length and only 20 nm in diameter. These ultra-long devices exhibit tremendous photothermal properties, converting up to 90% of incident light energy to heat. Their tunable optical absorption range is from 1 to 10 microns.
Nanowires are an extension of the technology currently employed by Nanopartz™ for nanorods. Gold nanorods have recently found huge successes in cancer therapy. Gold nanorods are also used for blood testing in diagnostics; as optical contrast agents in imaging; in material science, optics, negative refractive index materials such as the “Harry Potter Cloak;” and for improving the density of optical data storage in compact disks.
With tunable absorptions in the near to mid-IR, solar cell manufacturers can use these devices to improve the efficiencies of their devices since current devices do not absorb well at these wavelengths. Their shapes lend themselves to be a component in better optical devices like polarizers, filters, and negative refractive index materials. Many scientists have employed these devices as wires in nanocircuitry. Nanopartz™ is also experts in conjugating surface coatings to these gold nanoparticles. These conjugation provide the mechanical linkage necessary for many of these applications.
These devices are now available for evaluation at pre-production quantities. "We are very excited at the potential applications of these gold nanoparticles,” said Christian Schoen, President of Nanopartz™.

PDS Biotechnology Corporation today announced that the company has been selected as a collaborator of the US National Cancer Institute's Nanotechnology Characterization Lab (NCL) to complete preclinical development of Versamune(TM)-HPV prior to filing of the Investigational New Drug Application. The NCL will perform selected physical, chemical and biological studies on behalf of the company at its facilities at the National Cancer Institute (NCI) in Frederick, Maryland. Dr. Frank Bedu-Addo, President of the Corporation stated that, "PDS Biotechnology Corporation's partnership with the NCL provides significant value to the company. The invaluable expertise of the NCL's scientists will provide the company with additional expert resources and technologies, and will facilitate rapid development of the product."
Versamune(TM)-HPV is an immunotherapy drug which has demonstrated significant promise in curing HPV infection and HPV-related cancer in preclinical animal and human model studies. Cancers caused by infection with the human papilloma virus (HPV) include cervical, head and neck and anal cancers. No cures exist for these cancers. Based on promising in vivo and in vitro efficacy data, PDS Biotechnology Corporation was awarded in August 2008, a phase I SBIR grant by the US National Institutes of Health/National Cancer Institute to develop Versamune(TM)-Melanoma to treat melanoma, which is the most aggressive form of skin cancer.
PDS Biotechnology Corporation's Versamune(TM) nanotechnology facilitates the uptake of disease-associated protein and peptide antigens by the antigen- presenting cells of the immune system and simultaneously acts a strong immune system activator (adjuvant) without the inflammatory side effects induced by current adjuvants. The result is simple, safe and cost effective nanotechnology-based drugs and vaccines that induce effective eradication of the specific cells infected with, or expressing the particular protein formulated with Versamune(TM).
PDS Biotechnology Corporation ( pdsbiotech.com) is a Cincinnati, Ohio-based biotechnology company applying the company's proprietary Versamune(TM) nanotechnology drug platform technology to the development of safe and potent immunotherapies to prevent and to treat cancer and diseases caused by infectious agents.
The NCL is a formal collaboration between the US National Cancer Institute, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the National Institute of Standards and Technologies (NIST) to rapidly advance promising cancer nanotechnology drugs through regulatory submissions with the FDA.
Web site: pdsbiotech.com/

According to a paper by Hatice Şengül and colleagues at the University of Illinois at Chicago, strict material purity requirements, lower tolerances for defects and lower yields of manufacturing processes may lead to greater environmental burdens than those associated with conventional manufacturing. In a study of carbon nanofiber (CNF) production, Vikas Khanna and colleagues at The Ohio State University found, for example, that the life cycle environmental impacts may be as much as 100 times greater per unit of weight than those of traditional materials, potentially offsetting some of the environmental benefits of small size of nanomaterials.
Materials engineered at dimensions of 1 to 100 nanometers­ (1 to100 billionths of a meter) ­exhibit novel physical, chemical and biological characteristics, opening possibilities for stunning innovations in medicine, manufacturing and a host of other sectors of the economy. Because small quantities of nanomaterials can accomplish the tasks of much larger amounts of conventional materials, the expectation has been that nanomaterials will lower energy and resource use and the pollution that accompanies them. The possibility of constructing miniature devices atom-by-atom has also given rise to expectations that precision in nanomanufacturing will lead to less waste and cleaner processes.
“Research in this issue reveals the potential of environmental impacts from nanomanufacturing to offset the benefits of using lighter nanomaterials,” saysGus Speth, dean of the Yale University School of Forestry & Environmental Studies. “To date, most attention has focused on the possible toxic effects of exposure to nanoparticles­ and appropriately so. But the ‘old-fashioned’ considerations of pollution and energy use arising from the production technologies used to make nanomaterials need attention as well.”
Other topics explored in the special issue include: · Approaches for identifying and reducing the life cycle hazards of nanomaterials · Quantified life cycle energy requirements and environmental impacts from nanomaterials · Tradeoffs between nanomanufacturing costs and occupational exposure to nanoparticles · Efficiency of techniques for nanomaterials synthesis · Improvement of the sustainability of bio-based products through nanotechnology · Industrial frameworks for responsible nanotechnology · Industrial and public perception about the risks and benefits of nanomaterials · Governance and regulation of nanotechnology
Industrial ecology is a field that examines the opportunities for sustainable production and consumption, emphasizing the importance of a systems view of environmental threats and remedies. “Through the use of tools such as life cycle assessment, green chemistry and pollution prevention, industrial ecology takes a broad and deliberate view of environmental challenges,” states Reid Lifset, editor-in-chief of the Journal of Industrial Ecology. “This special issue shows the power of this approach.”
Roland Clift, Professor of Environmental Technology in the Centre for Environmental Strategy at the University of Surrey and Shannon Lloyd, Principal Research Engineer in the Sustainability & Process Engineering Directorate at Concurrent Technologies Corporation, served as guest editors. Support for this special issue was provided by the Educational Foundation of America, in Westport, Conn. and the Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars in Washington, D.C.